Biology and Psychology

1. Biological psychology is the study of the role of physical and chemical factors in behavior and mental processes.



Example: Changes in brain biochemicals are associated with depression.



REMEMBER: Biological psychology is the study of the biological factors that influence psychological phenomena.


2. The nervous system is a complex combination of cells that has three basic functions: to receive information, to integrate it with previous information to generate choices and decisions, and to guide actions and output based on those decisions.



Example: When we stand at the curb of a busy street, our nervous system receives sensory information about oncoming traffic, makes a decision to cross the street at a particular moment, and controls the movement (output) of stepping off the curb and crossing the street.


3. Neurons are the cells that make up the nervous system. Neurons can communicate with one another by receiving and sending signals. Three structures allow neurons to communicate: synapses, "excitable" (electrically polarized) membranes, and long thin fibers that extend outward from the cell called axons and dendrites.



REMEMBER: A neuron is similar to a computer in that information comes in, is processed, and is sent out.


4. Axons usually carry signals from the neuronal cell body out to the synapse, where communication with other nerve cells takes place. Generally, each neuron has only one axon.



REMEMBER:Axons create action potentials. Most of the time, the action potential travels from the cell body to the end of the axon. (See Key Term 7)


5. Dendrites are branches of the neuron that usually receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the neuron's cell body. Each neuron can have many dendrites.



REMEMBER:Dendrites detect signals from other neurons.


6. Glial cells hold neurons in place and help to sustain them.



REMEMBER:Glial means "glue"; part of the glial cells' job is to "glue" neurons together.



Example: A glial cell may secrete chemicals to stabilize a neuron's environment or to help repair a damaged neuron.


7. Action potentials occur when the neuron becomes depolarized and sodium rushes into the axon. Opening one sodium gate causes the gate next to it to open, which causes the next one to open, and so forth, all the way down the length of the axon. Action potentials are all-or-nothing activities; the cell either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.



REMEMBER: Electrical potentials occur when there is a difference in charge between the outside and inside of the cell. When an active change occurs in the electrical potential such as depolarization, sodium rushes into the axon and makes the inside less negative, causing an action potential.


8. Myelin is a fatty substance that wraps around some axons. It speeds an action potential's travel down the length of the axon.



Example: When a stray object flies toward your face, the sensory nerves must quickly transmit this information to your brain, and the motor nerves must carry the signal to your muscles to move very rapidly. These sensory and motor nerves are covered with myelin.


9. A refractory period is a rest period between action potentials. Following one action potential, the axon must repolarize before another action potential can occur. The time required for the axon to repolarize is called a refractory period.



REMEMBER: An axon refrains from firing an action potential during a refractory period.
A synapse is the very small gap between the presynaptic cell sending a message and the postsynaptic cell receiving that message. Typically, the axon is the presynaptic cell and the dendrite is the postsynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic cell cross the synapse and fit snugly into the receptors on the postsynaptic cell.



REMEMBER:Pre means "before." The presynaptic cell comes before the synapse. Post means "after." The postsynaptic cell comes after the synapse.


10. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry a signal from the presynaptic cell across the synapse to the receptors on the postsynaptic cell.



REMEMBER:Neuro refers to neuron. Transmit means to send something across space. Neurotransmitters send the signal or message across the space of the synapse to the postsynaptic neuron.


11. Receptors, usually located on the dendrites of the postsynaptic cell, are stimulated when neurotransmitters fit into them, like a key fits a lock.



REMEMBER: A receptor is something that receives. Receptors receive neurotransmitters.
Postsynaptic potential occurs when the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is changed.


12. An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) causes the postsynaptic membrane to become depolarized, thus increasing the probability that a neuron will fire an action potential. The strength of an EPSP weakens as it travels down the dendrite.



REMEMBER: An excitatory postsynaptic potential excites the neuron that will cause it to fire. But also note that all the EPSPs and IPSPs that a dendrite receives combine to determine whether or not the axon of the postsynaptic cell will fire an action potential. If there are more EPSPs than IPSPs, the neuron will fire an action potential.


13. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) causes the postsynaptic membrane to become hyperpolarized, thus decreasing the chances a neuron will fire an action potential. The strength of an IPSP weakens as it travels down the dendrite.


REMEMBER: An inhibitory postsynaptic potential inhibits or prevents the neuron from firing. But also note that all the EPSPs and IPSPs that a dendrite receives combine to determine whether or not the axon of the postsynaptic cell will fire an action potential. If there are more IPSPs than EPSPs, the neuron will not fire an action potential.


14. Neural networks are organized groups of interconnected neurons in the brain and spinal cord. These networks communicate with one another and are parts of larger network systems.


15. Sensory systems, which include vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, provide us with input about the environment.


Example: When you walk into a friend's house for a dinner party, your nose provides information about the food she or he has prepared.


16. Motor systems influence muscles and other organs to respond to the environment in some way.


Example: After you have smelled the food prepared for the dinner party and have decided that you want to eat it, your motor system allows you to walk to the table, sit down, and manipulate the fork, knife, and spoon.



17. The peripheral nervous system is the major division of the nervous system that is not encased in bone. It has two major subdivisions, the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.


REMEMBER:Peri means "around." The peripheral nervous system is located around the center of your body.

18. The central nervous system (CNS) is the major division of the nervous system that is encased in bone and includes the brain and spinal cord. Its primary function is to process the information provided by the sensory systems and to decide on appropriate courses of action for the motor system.


REMEMBER: The brain and spinal cord are centrally located. Your spinal cord is in the center of your torso; the brain is centered over your shoulders. Therefore, the brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system.

19. The somatic nervous system, which is part of the peripheral nervous system, transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the CNS to the muscles that move the skeleton.


Example: When you dance, the somatic nervous system transmits the sound of the music to your brain and carries the signals from your brain to the muscles that move your arms and legs.


REMEMBER:Soma means "body." The somatic nervous system is involved with taking sensory information from the body parts, such as the ears, and sending signals back to the body, such as movement instructions to coordinate dance steps.

20. The autonomic nervous system, which is part of the peripheral nervous system, carries messages back and forth between the CNS and the organs and glands.


Example: While you dance, your peripheral nervous system may alter the expansion of your lungs so that you can inhale more oxygen. Also, your heartbeat increases so that more blood reaches your muscles.


REMEMBER: The autonomic nervous system regulates the automatic functions of your body, such as breathing and blood pressure. You do not normally think about these functions.
Nuclei are collections of cell bodies.


REMEMBER: If you think of the CNS as a map of Boston, nuclei would represent "neighborhoods" on the map.

21. Fiber tracts or pathways are collections of axons that travel together in bundles, interconnecting nuclei.


REMEMBER: Again, if you think of the CNS as a map of Boston, fiber tracts would represent the large "superhighways" on the map.

22. The spinal cord, part of the central nervous system, receives signals from the somatic system in the periphery, such as vision, and relays them to the brain via fiber tracts within the spinal cord. The brain then relays signals to the muscles via fiber tracts in the spinal cord.


Example: The sensory information from feeling the fur on a kitten travels through the spinal cord's fiber tracts on its way to the brain. When your brain makes the decision to pick up the kitten, it sends signals through the fiber tracts in the spinal cord on the way to the muscles in your hands and arms.

23 Reflexes are quick, involuntary responses to incoming sensory information (along afferent neurons). The reflexive movement exits the nervous system and contacts the muscles along efferent (or motor) neurons.


Example: If you accidentally step on a pin embedded in your carpet, a withdrawal reflex occurs.


24. The afferent sensory neurons will take the information from your foot to the spinal cord, and the efferent motor neurons will send the signal back to the foot to make it withdraw from the floor.

25. The hindbrain, a major subdivision of the brain, includes the medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum. The hindbrain, an extension of the spinal cord, is housed in the skull and involved in controlling vital functions. The medulla is located in the hindbrain. It helps to regulate blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing. (see The Hindbrain)


Example: A person with damage to her medulla would most likely need artificial life support to maintain breathing and perhaps would not survive the injury.

26. The reticular formation is not a well-defined area of brain tissue but a collection of nuclei and fibers that form a network of cells throughout the hindbrain and midbrain. The reticular formation is involved in arousal and attention.


REMEMBER:Reticular means "net-like." The cells of the reticular formation are not arranged in any distinct structure but, rather, thread throughout the hindbrain.

27. The locus coeruleus is a small group of cells that may be involved in the state of vigilance. Activity in the reticular formation stimulates the locus coeruleus.


Example: The numerous branches of axons from the locus coeruleus contact other cells, perhaps causing a state of attention or change in mood.

28. The cerebellum is located in the hindbrain. It controls fine motor coordination.


Example: Performing brain surgery requires delicate precision of movement so as to avoid damaging fragile tissue. A surgeon's cerebellum would be very active during an operation.

29. The midbrain, which includes the striatum and the substantia nigra, is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Sensory information is integrated in the midbrain to produce the smooth initiation of movement.

30. The substantia nigra is part of the midbrain and assists in the smooth initiation of movement.


Example: Phil, a person with damage to his substantia nigra, is unable to reach out his arm to shake hands with a neighbor.

31. The striatum is part of the cerebrum and interacts with the substantia nigra to control the smooth initiation of movement.


32. The forebrain, which is composed of the diencephalon and the cerebrum, is the most highly developed brain structure. It is responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and mental processes.


Example: Many years ago a surgical procedure called lobotomy was used to treat several types of mental disorders. The surgery involved destroying large parts of the forebrain. Patients on whom this surgery was performed were often unable to perform complex cognitive tasks afterward.

33. The thalamus is located in the forebrain. This region processes and relays sensory information on its way to higher centers of the brain.


Example: Jane has damage to her thalamus. She has normal processing of visual images with her eyes, but is unable to send that information on to be acted upon further by the brain. In fact, Jane reports being totally unable to see.

34. The hypothalamus is located in the forebrain. It regulates hunger, thirst, and sex drives, and is involved in emotion.


Example: Destroying certain parts of the hypothalamus causes an animal to cease eating and drinking. It will eventually die if not force-fed.

35. The suprachiasmatic nuclei, part of the hypothalamus, determines our biological rhythms, acting much like an internal alarm clock.


Example: Bob is used to getting up at 10:00 a.m. and working until about 2:00 a.m. Bob's suprachiasmatic nuclei have probably influenced him to be a "night person."

36. The amygdala, part of the limbic system, plays an important role in combining the features of stimuli from two sensory modalities.

Example: When you eat ice cream, your amygdala is involved in your perception that the ice cream is both cold and sweet.

37. The hippocampus, also part of the limbic system, is involved in learning and storing new pieces of information or new memories.


Example: Going to class every day would be a waste of time if your hippocampus was damaged. Although you'd be able to understand everything the instructor said, you wouldn't be able to form a memory for the new information.

38. The limbic system is contained in several brain areas and is involved in emotion, memory, and some thought processes. Severe degeneration of limbic system structures is found in Alzheimer's patients.


Example: Grace has Alzheimer's disease, which causes not only memory lapses, but also emotional outbursts in which she falsely claims family members have taken advantage of her.

39. The cerebral hemispheres constitute the outermost part of the cerebrum. Each hemisphere makes up one half of the top of the brain. To understand how the cerebrum is split into hemispheres, do the following: place your finger right between your eyes, lift it straight over your forehead, and trace an imaginary part in the middle of your hair to the back of your head. The line that you have just traced is the dividing line of the two cerebral hemispheres.


REMEMBER:Hemi means "half." Cerebral hemisphere refers to half of the cerebrum, which is round like a sphere.

40. The cerebral cortex, the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres, is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The cortex is also divided into three functional areas: the sensory cortex, the motor cortex, and the association cortex.

41. The sensory cortex, located in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, receives information from different senses, including touch, vision, and hearing.


Example: If you were to take a walk on the beach, your sensory cortex would be receiving various types of information in your lobes: occipital (the color of the water); parietal (the sandy feeling on your skin and the salt water on your face); and temporal (the sound of the surf).

42. The motor cortex, located in the frontal lobe, controls all voluntary movement.


Example: During that walk on the beach, your motor cortex would be sending information to your muscles to help you walk in the sand in a particular direction.


43. The association cortex pertains to all lobes of the cortex. These regions of cortex receive information from more than one sense or combine sensory and motor information. These are the areas that perform such complex cognitive tasks as associating words with images and other abstract thinking.

REMEMBER: Think of the association cortex as forming an association between many types of sensory and motor information.

44. The corpus callosum connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Without the corpus callosum, the two hemispheres could not communicate regarding their respective activities.

REMEMBER: Corpus callosum begins with two c's. The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres.

45. A lateralized task is one that is performed more efficiently by one hemisphere than by the other. The left hemisphere is better at logical reasoning and language skills, while the right hemisphere is superior in musical and artistic abilities and spatial reasoning.

Example: When Lynne reads, her left hemisphere is more activated than her right.

46. Synaptic plasticity is the brain's ability to strengthen neural connections at synapses and to establish new synapses.

Example: New synapses are formed in your brain when you learn new material.

47. A neurotransmitter system is a set of neurons that communicates with the same neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter system may control an aspect of behavior such as memory.

(Example: The symptoms Grace experiences from Alzheimer's disease occur due to its effects on her acetylcholine neurotransmitter system.

48. Acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter found in the cholinergic system, is used by neurons in the peripheral and central nervous systems. It assists in the contraction of muscles and the formation of new memories.

Example: Grace's memory lapses are linked to a loss of cholinergic neurons in areas of her brain that store memories.

49. The neurotransmitter norepinephrine is used in the adrenergic system. It is involved in arousal, learning, and moods.

Example: Miguel's sympathetic nervous system has activated the fight-or-flight response by releasing norepinephrine to allow him to jump out of the way of an inexperienced cyclist.

50. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, moods, and appetite.

Example: Joyce finished a high-carbohydrate meal of macaroni and cheese; therefore, her desire for carbohydrates is being reduced by the release of serotonin.

51. The neurotransmitter dopamine is used in the substantia nigra and striatum to control movement. Dopaminergic neurons also play a role in the experience of pleasure.

Example: Nelson has Parkinson's disease, which is associated with a deterioration of dopamine cells. Nelson finds it increasingly difficult to move from a sitting to a standing position and is discouraged by his increasingly noticeable hand tremors.

52. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is involved in a variety of behaviors and mental processes. Malfunctioning GABA systems are associated with severe anxiety, Huntington's disease, and epilepsy.

Example: Huntington's disease has reduced the number of GABA-containing neurons in Victoria's striatum. Because her dopamine system is no longer inhibited by GABA, Victoria experiences uncontrollable movements of her arms and legs.

53. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that helps signals cross the synapse more efficiently.

Example: Craig believes he will one day be able to show evidence of learning through the tracking of glutamate's effects on synaptic connections.

54. Endorphins are naturally occurring opiate-like neurotransmitters that modify pain signals being sent to the brain such that perceived pain is reduced.

Example: "Runner's high," or the absence of pain and the euphoric feeling that many runners report after covering long distances, may be caused by the release of endorphins.

55. The endocrine system is made up of cells that can communicate with one another. A wide variety of behaviors and mental processes are influenced by this system. Hormones, traveling via the bloodstream, affect coordinated systems of target tissues and organs by producing such responses as the fight-or-flight syndrome.

56. Glands, the structures that make up the endocrine system, secrete hormones.

Example: The pituitary, adrenals, testes, ovaries, pancreas, and thyroid are all glands of the endocrine system.

57. Hormones are chemicals that, when released by the glands of the endocrine system, travel via the bloodstream and communicate with other cells, thus influencing behavior and mental processes.

Example: A woman's menstrual cycle is governed by the timed release of several different hormones from the pituitary and ovary glands.

58. The fight-or-flight syndrome, caused by the release of hormones, is a coordinated set of responses to danger that prepares the organism for action. The heart beats faster, the liver releases glucose to be used as energy, and the organism is placed in a state of high arousal. In short, the organism is prepared to stay and fight or to flee very quickly.

Example: Any scary experience will induce the fight-or-flight syndrome. Hearing strange noises at night, giving your first speech in college, or almost being hit by a car can be very frightening. If you have been in any of these situations, you may recall how your heart suddenly thudded.

59. Negative feedback systems are designed to monitor and adjust the level of activity in your physiological systems.

Example: Think of the hormones that are released from pituitary glands.

Negative feedback systems provide a way for your body to maintain the correct amount of pituitary hormone in your system--not too much and not too little. Your pituitary releases hormone X. Certain levels of circulating hormone X cause chemical Y to be secreted from another place in your body. Your pituitary can "read" the level of chemical Y in the bloodstream. When the Y level gets too high, the pituitary stops releasing hormone X.

REMEMBER:Negative feedback means providing feedback to a system and saying "No more--Stop!" to that activity (for example, releasing hormones).

60. The immune system monitors the internal state of the body, detects foreign and harmful substances, and eliminates them. Example: A virus will be surrounded by immune system cells and destroyed if the system is working properly.

61. Autoimmune disorders are diseases in which the body literally attacks itself and kills normal cells.

REMEMBER:Auto means "self" (think of autobiography). In an autoimmune disorder the immune system attacks the "self."

Unit 2-Vocabulary

1. Critical thinking is the process of evaluating propositions or hypotheses and making judgments about them on the basis of well-supported evidence. (see Thinking Critically About Psychology)

Example: Consider the five steps of critical thinking. (a) What am I being asked to believe or accept? What is the hypothesis? (b) What evidence is available to support the assertion? Is it reliable and valid? (c) Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence? (d) What additional evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives? (e) What conclusions are most reasonable based on the evidence and the number of alternative explanations?

2. A hypothesis is a prediction stated as a testable proposition, usually in the form of an if-then statement. (see Critical Thinking and Scientific Research)

Example:If rats have access to toys, then they can practice behaviors similar to those used in running a maze and perform better than rats raised without access to toys.

3. Data are numbers that represent research findings and provide the basis for research conclusions. (see Critical Thinking and Scientific Research)

Example: For a psychologist studying learning, a test score might represent an operational definition of the amount one has learned. Sets of test scores for classes that received different teaching methods are the data.

4. An operational definition is a statement of the specific methods used to measure a variable. (see Critical Thinking and Scientific Research)
Example: If we are conducting a study regarding the effects of caffeine on anxiety, we would have to decide exactly how we plan to measure anxiety. Our operational definition of anxiety might be changes in blood pressure or the subjects' answers to an anxiety questionnaire--whatever logically fits our research hypothesis.

5. A theory is a cohesive cluster of explanations of behavior and mental processes. Theories are not definitive; they are constantly amended as researchers collect and analyze new data. (see The Role of Theories)
Example: Finding that people under stress often overeat or drink more alcohol led to the theory that behaviors that appear self-destructive may be stress alleviators.

6. Sampling is a procedure used to choose subjects for research. Ideally, the participants chosen should be representative of the population being studied. (see Selecting Human Participants for Research)
Example: If you are studying the behavior of gifted children, your sample should be drawn exclusively from this group.

7. Random samples are groups of subjects selected from the population of interest. A sample is random if every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected. If a sample is not random, it is said to be biased. (see Selecting Human Participants for Research)

Example: A social psychologist is interested in studying the influence of parents on the career choice of first-year college students in the United States. If the sample is to be random, every first-year student must have an equal chance of being selected as a subject. The researcher thus draws the sample from lists of first-year college students in schools all over the United States, not just from the schools in one state.

A sample is biased if everyone in the population of interest does not have an equal chance of being selected to participate in a study. (see Selecting Human Participants for Research)

REMEMBER: Experimental results obtained from a biased sample may not be generalizable to the population of interest. The results are biased by characteristics of the subjects, not by the independent variable.

8. Naturalistic observation, a method of gathering descriptive information, involves watching behaviors of interest, without interfering, as they occur in their natural environments. (see Naturalistic Observation: Watching Behavior)

Example: A researcher interested in how much time children of different ages play alone could observe children at a playground.

REMEMBER: A researcher observes a phenomenon in its natural environment.

9. Case studies are used to collect descriptive data through the intensive examination of a phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation. Case studies are particularly useful for studying rare or complex phenomena. (see Case Studies: Taking a Closer Look)

Example: Biological psychologists cannot alter a person's brain in the laboratory for the purposes of study; therefore, they are interested in people who have suffered brain injuries in accidents.

Researchers examine these patients intensively over long periods of time.

10. Surveys are questionnaires or special interviews administered to a large group. Surveys are designed to obtain descriptions of people's attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or behavioral intentions. (see Surveys: Looking at the Big Picture)

Example: Social psychologists interested in learning what teenagers from families of varying income levels think of marriage can administer a questionnaire to a sample of teenagers.

11. An experiment allows a researcher to control the data-collection process. A random sample of subjects is selected and divided into a control group and an experimental group. Both groups are identical in every way except the administration of the independent variable to the experimental group. The dependent variable is then measured in both groups. Any difference in the dependent variable between the two groups is caused by the independent variable.

Experiments show causation. (see Experiments: Exploring Cause and Effect)

REMEMBER: An experiment is a trial or test of a hypothesis.

12. Independent variables are manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment. They are administered to the experimental group. (see The Experimental Method)

Example: An experiment is conducted to test the effects of alcohol on reflex speed. Two groups of subjects are randomly selected. One group, the experimental group, is given alcohol (alcohol is the independent variable), and the other group, the control group, is given a nonalcoholic beverage.

13. Dependent variables are the behaviors or mental processes affected by the independent variable. They are observed and measured before and after the administration of the independent variable. (The Experimental Method)

Example: In the experiment examining the effects of alcohol on reflex speed, the dependent variable is reflex speed.REMEMBER: The measure or value of the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

14. The experimental group receives the independent variable in an experiment. (see The Experimental Method)

Example: In the experiment examining the effects of alcohol on reflex speed, the group who receives alcohol (the independent variable) is the experimental group.

15. The control group provides a baseline for comparison to the experimental group and does not receive the independent variable. This group is identical to the experimental group in every way except that these subjects do not receive the independent variable. (see The Experimental Method)

Example: In the experiment examining the effects of alcohol on reflex speed, the group who received the nonalcoholic beverage is the control group.

REMEMBER: The control group provides the control in an experiment. Comparing the measure of the dependent variable in both the control and experimental groups indicates whether the independent variable is causing the changes in the dependent variable or whether these changes occurred by chance.

16. Confounding variables are factors affecting the dependent variable in an experiment instead of or along with the independent variable. Examples of confounding variables include random variables, experimenter bias, and the placebo effect. (see The Experimental Method)

17. Random variables are uncontrollable factors that could affect the dependent variable in an experiment instead of or along with the independent variable. (see Random Variables)

Example: An experimenter wishes to test the effects of a teaching technique on test performance. The subjects are assigned to the control and experimental groups. The researcher doesn't know it, but most of the students in the experimental group are much brighter than the control group students. The data may suggest that the students who received the teaching technique scored higher than those who didn't. In this case, however, intelligence is a random variable that, instead of the independent variable, could be responsible for the results.

18 Random assignment is an attempt to try to minimize effects of random variables by distributing them randomly across groups. Thus, participants are randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. (see Random Variables)

19. A placebo is a physical or psychological treatment that contains no active ingredient but produces an effect on the dependent variable because the person receiving it believes it will. (see Participants' Expectations)

Example: In an experiment on the effects of alcohol, a researcher may find that people who have been given a nonalcoholic beverage behave as though they're drunk only because they believe they have been given an alcoholic drink.

20. Experimenter bias occurs when a researcher inadvertently encourages subjects to respond in a way that supports her hypothesis. (see Experimenter Bias)

Example: An experimenter hypothesizes that an expert will be able to persuade a group of people that decision A is better than decision B. After the expert has spoken to the subjects, the researcher asks them which decision they prefer. She can ask in several ways. Asking, Now, don't you think A is better than B? will bias her data more than if she asks, Which do you think is better, decision A or decision B?

21. In a double-blind design neither the experimenter nor the participants know who has received the independent variable. (see Experimenter Bias)

Example: The experiment studying the effects of alcohol on reflex speed (described in relation to Key Term 10) is repeated using a double-blind design. Neither the participants nor the experimenter knows who has received alcohol and who hasn't. Thus participants are prevented from changing their behavior simply because they think they have been given alcohol. At the same time, the experimenter is prevented from biasing observations of the subjects' behavior or mental processes.

22. Descriptive statistics summarize a set of data. Examples of descriptive statistics are measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and correlation coefficients. (see Statistical Analysis of Research Results)

23. The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a data set. (see Measures of Central Tendency)Example: In the data set 3, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 22, 22, 22, the mode is 22.

24. The median is the score that divides a data set in two; half the scores are higher than the median, and half the scores are lower than the median. (see Measures of Central Tendency)Example: In the data set, 3, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 22, 22, 22, the median is 18.REMEMBER: The median is "the score in the middle"--the score that divides the data set in half. When there is an even number of scores in a data set, the median is halfway between the two middle numbers.

25. The mean is the arithmetic average. To compute the mean, add the numerical values of all the scores in a data set and divide that sum by the number of scores in the data set. (see Measures of Central Tendency)Example: For the previous data set the mean is equal to (3 + 12 + 14 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 22 + 22 + 22 + 22)/11 = 187/11 = 17.

REMEMBER: This measure of central tendency takes into account all of the values of the scores in a data set. Therefore, even one extreme score can change the mean radically, possibly making it less representative of the data.

The range is a measure of variability computed by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a data set. The range is affected by extreme scores. (see Measures of Variability)Example: In the data set 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 100, the range is 100 - 2 = 98. If the extreme score (100) is dropped, the range is 8 - 2 = 6. Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set.

26. The standard deviation is a measure of variability. It reflects the average distance between each score and the mean of a data set. The standard deviation will tell you how different the scores are from the mean. (see Measures of Variability)

Example: Following are two data sets.Data set 1: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9Data set 2: 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6The mean of both data sets is 5. However, the scores in data set 1 are a greater distance from the mean. In other words, they are more different from the mean than the scores in data set 2. Therefore, the standard deviation (SD) in data set 1 is larger than the SD for data set 2.

REMEMBER: To deviate means to "differ." The standard deviation describes, overall, how different the scores in a data set are from the mean.

27. A correlation is an indication of the relationship between two variables (x and y). (see Correlation and Correlation Coefficients)

Example: In a small English town, the seasonal appearance of a large number of storks is positively correlated with the number of human births; as x (the number of storks) increases, y (the number of births) increases. If correlations indicated causation, we could say that the storks cause babies to appear. But correlations do not imply causation, and storks do not bring babies.

REMEMBER: Correlations do not indicate causation.

28. The correlation coefficient (r), a number between -1.00 and +1.00, is a mathematical representation of the strength and direction of a correlation. The higher the absolute value of r is, the stronger the relationship is. A perfect correlation, whether positive or negative (where r equals + or -1.00), describes a perfect relationship; knowing the value of x allows the certain prediction of y. A positive correlation (where r varies from 0 to +1.00) describes two variables that change in the same direction: as x increases, so does y (and vice versa). A negative correlation (where r varies from -1.00 to 0) describes an inverse relationship: as x increases, y decreases (and vice versa). (see Correlation and Correlation Coefficients)

29. Inferential statistics are used to judge the meaning of data. Inferential statistics assess how likely it is that group differences or correlations would exist in the population rather than occurring only due to variables associated with the chosen sample. (see Inferential Statistics)

REMEMBER:Inferential statistics allow psychologists to infer what the data mean.
If a statistic is statistically significant, it is an indication that the group differences or correlation is larger than would occur by chance. (see Inferential Statistics)

Example: If the difference between two group means is statistically significant, a researcher would conclude that the difference most likely exists in the population of interest. If the difference is not statistically significant, a researcher would conclude that the difference occurred by chance--possibly because of an unrepresentative sample or the presence of confounding variables.

30. Behavioral genetics explores the impact of genetics and environmental factors on differences in the behavioral tendencies of groups. (see Linkages: Psychological Research and Behavioral Genetics)

Example: A behavioral genetics study might look for similarities in behavior among relatives. The children of a person who experiences depression, for example, might be more likely to develop depression than distant relatives or unrelated people.

Unit 2 Research Methods

Objectives

1.identify psychological research methods
2.critically evaluate psychological research to determine validity, reliability and ethicality

Topic 1. What is the Scientific Method?

2. Research Methods Research Methods in Psychology
Exercise: Selecting the appropriate research method

3. Experimental Design

4. An Introduction to Statistics

5. Ethics: How to be ethical in psychology.The APA Guidelines: General Principles

6. Video: Discovering Psychology: Understanding Research
Assessment: Free Response Writing

Unit I Activities

Unit One History and Approaches

Objectives

• Define psychology and list its specialization and associated careers
• Describe and critically appraise the major psychology perspectives
  

Topic
1. What is psychology?a) With your partner, browse through the text to answer the question: “What does psychology study?”b) Extension: Visit Psychology Today and find articles of interest to you.b) Instructions for setting up your AP Blog remains will appear soon. Your first entry posting will be titled: “My motivations for studying psychology.”


2. What is AP Psychology?a) Download your own copy of the AP Course requirements and assessment programb) After browsing though the course descriptions and your text write a paragraph about the unit that sounds most interesting to you. Explain your answer.

History of Psychology

a) Assigned Reading

b) Text based activities:
Jigsaw Group Work: In small groups, brainstorm three topics of interest for one type of psychologist.Your classmates will attempt to categorize these topics.

Class Discussion: The text outlines a number of different approaches to psychology and uses aggression as an example. How would the different perspectives approach the topic of gender differences?

Class Discussion: Use the Table to identify examples of collectivist behavior you have observed.

Extension: Video “Past Present and Promise” Viewing Guide

The Perspectives and great names. PowerPoint Presentation

Class discussion: Why do we do the things that we do?

Approaches and Perspectives Where do you stand on important psychological issues?

Psychology as a Career: Interviews and reports

Resources, Review and Assessment a) Chapter Outlineb) PowerPoint c) Chapter Reviewb) Chapter testLook at the next post to help you personalize the way you study for chapter tests.
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Studying Psychology

Look here to see some fairly standard advice regarding how to study psychology effectively.

You should aim to determine what works best for you as we all learn differently. You could take chapter notes or complete the guided study or do both. The online resources that accompany the text include quizzes and vocabulary exercises and you can add these to your study method.

Adopt your own strategy and see how successful you are. If you do not do well in the chapter tests then you obviously need to adopt a different study strategy.

Notetaking

The Cornell Note Taking System

Draw a vertical line to split your sheet of paper into two sections:
one section about 1/3 on the left called the recall column
the other 2/3 on the right called the record or main column

The format provides the perfect opportunity for following through with the 5 R's of note-taking. Here they are:

1. Record. During the lecture, record in the main column as many meaningful facts and ideas as you can. Write legibly.

2. Reduce. As soon after as possible, summarize these ideas and facts concisely in the Recall Column. Summarizing clarifies meanings and relationships, reinforces continuity, and strengthens memory. Also, it is a way of preparing for examinations gradually and well ahead of time.

3. Recite. Now cover the column, using only your jottings in the Recall Column as cues or "flags" to help you recall, say over facts and ideas of the lecture as fully as you can, not mechanically, but in your own words and with as much appreciation of the meaning as you can. Then, uncovering your notes, verify what you have said. This procedure helps to transfer the facts and ideas of your long term memory.

4. Reflect. Reflective students distill their opinions from their notes. They make such opinions the starting point for their own musings upon the subjects they are studying. Such musings aid them in making sense out of their courses and academic experiences by finding relationships among them. Reflective students continually label and index their experiences and ideas, put them into structures, outlines, summaries, and frames of reference. They rearrange and file them. Best of all, they have an eye for the vital-for the essential. Unless ideas are placed in categories, unless they are taken up from time to time for re-examination, they will become inert and soon forgotten.

5. Review. If you will spend 10 minutes every week or so in a quick review of these notes, you will retain most of what you have learned, and you will be able to use your knowledge currently to greater and greater effectiveness.

UNIT 1-Development of Psychology

UNIT 1-2.5 Weeks

Myers, Modules 1-2, Development of Psychology


Objectives
Define Psychology
Describe the historical development of Psychology
Define, compare, and contrast the various approaches to Psychology

History
A. Ancients
B. Middle Ages
C. 1800’s
D. 1900’s

Approaches (Introduction)
E. The Biological Approach-Physiological Processes and Genetics
F. The Behaviorist Approach Conditioning and Learning
G. The Cognitive Approach Memory and other Cognitive Processes
H. The Psychodynamic Approach Psychoanalysis and its Offshoots
I. The Humanistic Approach Rogers, Maslow, and Others

AP PSYCHOLOGY

AP PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE SYLLABUS
2007-2008

Course Description

AP Psychology is designed to provide students with the experiences of an introductory course in psychology as they would find in a university. Additionally, the course is designed to prepare students to successfully complete the AP Psychology Exam before the end of the school year.

Psychology is the study of human behavior and mental processes. It is a combination of many fields of scientific exploration: biology, philosophy, cultural anthropology, sociology, and physiology. Students will be encouraged to explore the connections and contributions each has made to the development of psychology.

The course will provide a familiarization with the basic philosophical principles in psychology as well as the scientific testing methods used to determine the validity of those principles.

Students will be introduced to studies which will aid them in developing a better understanding of human behavior. The course will address central questions: "Why do we do the things we do?"; "How can we understand those actions from a more objective viewpoint?"; "Can we actually modify our behaviors in a positive fashion?"

In addition to studying the fundamentals of psychology, students will be encouraged to develop their critical thinking skills, their comprehension skills, and the ability to organize propositions in a logical and analytic fashion in preparation for persuasive presentations and discussions.

Course Objectives

Fundamentally, as a college-level course, this class aims to prepare students mentally as well as academically for the university. An introduction to the methods and theories of psychology is only part of the course's intent. The further intent is to provide students with knowledge which will allow them to discover the practical, every-day use of psychological applications. With these insights, students will better understand their own actions, the behavior of others, as well as the diversity of the culture in which we live.

Students will acquire basic understandings of fundamental theories in psychology, research methods, core terms, and the current state of psychological research.

Students practice the writing skills and style necessary to successful completion of the AP Psychology exam.

Students will develop skills necessary for critical analysis of the information and influences that surround them through our culture on a daily basis; the media, advertising, schooling, work, community, church, etc.

Upon completion, students will be able to:
Ÿ Critically analyze scientific research for a variety of applications
Ÿ Objectively analyze their personal academic accomplishments
Ÿ Develop an understanding of human behavior they can explain in terms fundamental to academic psychology
Ÿ Objectively analyze the writings of fellow students (cooperatively)
Ÿ Develop skills for researching, analyzing, and presenting current issues in psychology

This exploration of psychology encompasses the past and the present. Students are expected to stay informed of critical issues in psychology and in our culture as a whole, through popular periodicals and professional journals. It is suggested that regular reading of newspapers and news magazines as well as the regular viewing of news broadcasts be maintained throughout the course.

Student Evaluations

Pop quizzes may be given at any time on assigned readings. Overnight assignments may also count as an announced quiz.

Tests will be given in three forms: A) essays B) multiple-choice and C) various forms of matching, fill-in-the-blank for vocabulary tests. Some tests will be timed to simulate the need to be time-aware in preparation for the AP exam. Student projects will carry the weight of two unit tests. The mid-term exam and the end-of-semester exam are requirements of the AP Psychology course. The end-of-semester exam will include all material covered during the semester.

Primary Textbook

Myers, David. Psychology, 6th ed. In Modules, Worth Publishing, 2005.

Supplemental Texts
Buber, Martin, I and Thou, Simon and Schuster, 1971.

Davis, Stephen and Joseph Palladino, Psychology, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, 2002.

Frankl, Victor E., Man’s Search For Meaning, Simon and Shuster, 1984.

McEntarffer, Robert and Allyson Weseley, AP Psychology 2006-2007, Barron’s, 2004.

Boeree, George, General Psychology: PSY 101, Shippensburg University. Online Text. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsysyl.html



Assignments/Assessment
Unit Tests: All tests are designed to mimic the AP Exam with multiple choice and essay questions.
Quizzes: Given weekly, each quiz will focus primarily on vocabulary and may take any of a variety of formats.

Projects
Naturalistic Observation
Each student will report on their 30-minute observation of human participants in a naturalistic setting. This exercise will familiarize students with the method, improve their awareness of their powers of observation, and permit them an understanding of the subjective and objective record.

Experimental Design
Students will select a hypothetical research problem and write a proposal for a controlled experiment to solve it. The exercise serves to improve their understanding of research methodology.

Final Research Paper

The research paper will focus on a topic selected by the instructor and will be different for each student. It will outline the development of professional understanding of apsychological disorder as well as on-going studies and therapies